History 420 - Dr. Gayle Olson-Raymer
Understanding Stereotypes and Historical Trauma in Indian Country
Goals for today's discussion:
Goal #1: To learn how stereotyping has contributed to historical trauma in Indian Country today
See the power point presentation, "'Kill the Indian, Save the Man' - Stereotypes and Historical Trauma in Indian Country"
Goal #2: To examine the ways that Hollywood films have stereotyped American Indians
Beginning in the early 20th Century, Hollywood produced thousands of films that projected the white man's vision of American Indians - the Euro-American point of view. And we can see the results in "How Hollywood Stereotyped Native Americans" at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hJFi7SRH7Q
In thousands of Hollywood films, we see at least the following five types of stereotypes - each which are listed in your handout and all of which reinforce the white man's point of view about American Indians:
So, let's examine the evolution of these stereotypes through Hollywood movies...
A Chronological Understanding of Hollywood Stereotypes - Beginning in the 1890s, the newly-developing movie industry began a trend that continued until the late 1990s - because movies had to make money, movies ABOUT Indians were made from the white point of view; movies were not made BY Indians from the Indian point of view.
Silent Era (1880s to the 1920s) - Films about Indians in the silent era relied upon both the brutal savage and the noble savage stereotypes, often in the same film, as well as upon the ignorant and drunk Indian. This discussion of how Buffalo Bill Cody choreographed his films and photographs during this period is typical of filming during this silent era.
1882-1900 Although Buffalo Bill Cody's Wild West Show would not be filmed until the early 1920s, it's influence was enormous because it set up the "Cowboys and Indians" version of the American west in which the white all-American hero - the cowboy - fights and conquers the choreograph - the Indian.
1894 One of the oldest surviving films made in America was a 
16-second black and white silent film of the Buffalo Dance shot by Thomas Edison. Unlike many films to follow, it featured real American Indians - three Sioux warriors named Hair Coat, Parts His Hair and Last Horse - who danced in a circle as well as two other Native Americans who sat behind them playing drums. According to the Edison catalog, the actors were "genuine Sioux Indians, in full war paint and war costumes."
1914 One of the first films made in Hollywood was The Squaw Man that told a tale of doomed love between an Englishman and an American Indian woman. Its stereotypical message was that white civilization has no room for natives and that American Indians and their culture are doomed to extinction.
1920 The Last of the Mohicans was the first feature-length film about American Indians. Its stereotypical message incorporated both the brutal and noble savage images. On one hand was the blood-thirsty Huron Magua, the film's barbaric villian. On the other hand, was Uncas - a full-blooded Mohican Indian with a good heart, but is simple and mono-syllabic. Uncas was a follower of his smarter adopted brother Hawkeye - a white man raised by Indians who was better at everything Indians did than the Indians themselves. Hawkeye was the hero of the story, despite it being about the Mohicans.
Other classic movies of this era: Before the White Man Came (1918) - the narration and music was added over 20 years later, The Daughter of Dawn (1920) - the first and only movie of the era to use an all-Indian cast, The Vanishing American (1925).
In most of the films made during the silent era, Indians were played by white people with darkened make up and wigs. Indian men scowled, stood with rigid bodies, and grunted barely intelligible words while Indian women were soft, meek, and often seen looking longingly at the white hero.
Western Progress Era (1930s to the 1940s) - Films in this era continued to use the brutal and noble savage stereotypes, largely to tell the white man's point of view about Manifest Destiny in which good whites who righteously tamed western land were threatened by untamed, violent savages who stood in the way of American progress. Typical of this era were several cartoons that always showed the Indian as being outsmarted by the white man, and in this case, by a silly rabbit - Bugs Bunny in A Feather in His Hare (1948)
1933 In the first full-feature Popeye cartoon, "I Yam What I Yam," Popeye, Olive Oil, and Whimpy were shipwrecked on an island filled with unfriendly Indians. Its stereotypical message was that Popeye could "out Indian" the Indians by being more intelligent and stronger and thus was able to make the island safe for their superior habitation. This was the beginning of many cartoons that used every conceivable stereotype about American Indians.
1939 One of the first John Wayne movies, Allegheny Uprising, set the tone for this era. Its stereotypical message was that hard-working Euro-Americans tamed the wild west and such physical and emotional investments gave them a moral right to the land. The local Indians posed a very real threat to this Euro-American right and were shown as inferior, brutal savages who did not deserve the land.
Other
classic movies of this era: Stagecoach (1939), Northwest Passage (1940), They Died with Their Boots On (1941), Fort Apache (1948); She Wore A Yellow Ribbon (1949). Classic cartoons of this era: Betty Boop in Rhythm on the Reservation (1941), Porky Pig in Wagon Heels (1945)
In these new westerns, America was settled by stereotypically righteous and heroic white men and women who understood the importance of land ownership. In contrast, the Indians wore long-flowing headdresses and mocasins, carried a lethal tomahawk, lived in a tipi, and hunted buffalo - and sometimes white men, women, and children. Even America's silliest cartoon characters were able to outwit the stereotypical ignorant Indians.
Western Conquest Era (1950s and 1960s) - Western films in this era challenged the righteousness of Manifest Destiny and earlier stereotypes of the white western hero. Instead, they suggested that the greedy, often violent white men conquered rather than settled the west and in so doing, victimized American Indian people. Indians - still played by white men - were seen in a more human light, but were still stereotyped as being all alike, not very intelligent, involved in silly dancing and singing, and when women are portrayed, they are always romantically interested in a white man. Typical of this era was the 1953 Disney release of Peter Pan.
1950
The first movie to question to traditional view of Manifest Destiny - Broken Arrow - was released. It was the first film in which the directors made a real effort to accurately portray the lives of Indians - Apaches - as well as the thinking of Euro-Americans in the west after the Civil War. Its stereotypical message is that Indians must still played by white actors and presented through the white point of view. It did not accurately portray white/Indian relations, but rather, what Euro-Americans wanted to believe about these relationships.
1952 The Lone Ranger was the first television show to feature an Indian in a leading role. Jay Silverheels - a Canadian Mohawk - starred as Tonto. Together, the white hero and his trusted companion roamed the west trying to right many wrongs.
Other classic movies of this era: Apache (1954); The Searchers (1956); Cheynne Autumn (1964)
In these movies, the directors and actors were well intentioned in their desire to show Indians as real people. But because they were always made from the white point of view and most of the Indians were still portrayed by white men, these movies never fully succeed in portraying Indians accurately and instead, pepetuate Indian stereotypes.
Indians as Metaphor Era (1970s to mid-1980s) - Western films of this era used Indians as a metaphor for other victimized people of the time period, especially the Vietnamese and Indians involved in the 1970s Red Power Movement. Indians were shown as victims who lost a valiant cause similar to the cause that the Vietnamese were losing. Typical of this era was One Flew Over the Cukoo's Nest (1975)
1970 Soldier Blue tells the story of a white woman who once lived with the Cheyenne and a white man, the only survivor of an Indian attack on his Cavalry detachment. Together, they struggle to make their way back to the safety of an Army outpost where they discover that the Cavalry is preparing to enact vicious revenge on the Cheyenne. The woman tries to warn the Indians, but is unable to prevent the awful slaughter that came to be known as the Sand Creek Massacre - the director's metaphor for the atrocities the American military were commiting in Vietnam. Thus, the movie provided the first motion picture account of the Sand Creek massacrein which Colorado Territory militia under Colonel John M. Chivington massacred a defenseless village of Cheyenne and Arapaho. Its stereotypical message is that the Cheyenne have made a heathen of the adopted American woman who has a foul mouth, readily removes her clothes, and has no remorse about taking items from dead soldiers.
A Man Called Horse tells the story of a white man - Horse - living among his adopted Sioux tribe. While the film makers claimed that they were presenting an accurate portrayal of the Lakota Sioux, it instead tells the story of how Horse was treated like an animal by the Sioux - a treatment that is not found in the Sioux tradition of hospitality. Its stereotypical message is of the brutal savage who treats a man like an animal while standing around and laughing as he is being tortured. Additionally, the scene where Horse is involved in the Sun Dance is completely inaccurate. Instead of showing it to be the most sacred of religious rites in which the Sioux prove their humility to the spirits, it is turned into a macho exercise of self-mutilation and a primitive rite of initiation into manhood - an initiation that Horse can endure as good as, or even better than, the Lakota warrior.
Little Big Man relates the story of Jack Crabb who is 121 years old as the film begins and who claims to be the only white man to have survived the Battle of Little Big Horn, also known as Custer's Last Stand. Crabb recounts being captured and raised by Indians, becoming a gunslinger, marrying an Indian, watching her killed by General George Armstrong Custer, and becoming a scout for him at Little Big Horn. There are no blatant Indian stereotypes in this movie, but there are plenty of stereotypes about the violent, evil nature of the U.S. military during Little Big Horn.
In showing Indians as victims, these movies were the first to really humanize Indians. But in trying to be accurate, they still failed as they were told from the white point of view.
Sympathetic Era (mid-1980s to the present) - Films of this era were no longer focused solely on westward expansion but instead tried to show Indians accurately during many periods of American history. Typical of this era was the movie that began looking at Indians sympathically - was New Moon from the Twilight series.
1990 Dances with Wolves opens as Union Lieutenant John W. Dunbar attempts to kill himself on a suicide mission, but instead becomes an unintentional hero. His actions lead to his reassignment to a remote post in South Dakota where he encounters the Sioux. Dunbar, attracted by the natural simplicity of their lifestyle, chooses to leave his former life behind to join the Sioux and in so doing, takes the name Dances with Wolves. Soon, Dances with Wolves is a welcome member of the 
tribe and falles in love with a white woman adopted by the Sioux. His peaceful existence is threatened, however, when Union soldiers arrive with designs on the Sioux land. Its stereotypical messages are twofold. First, Dunbar's Sioux become the exception - the good Indians - because they are not like the other savages and don't dress up in war paint; the audience feels comfortable with liking them because they are not bad Indians. Second, the real villain in this movie is the white cavalry who capture Dunbar - and so the audience shows no remorse when the Sioux slaughter the whites in order to rescue Dunbar. The audience has reached a point where it can completely sympathize with the Sioux's and Dunbar's point of view.
2009 In New Moon, Bella flirts with the possibility of choosing a life with Jacob - a Quileute Indian. In essence, Bella goes Native. After many afternoons at LaPush and an appearance at a Tribal Council meeting in Eclipse, Bella rejects a human future and entree into Quileute society with Jacob in favor of death and an eternity with the racially pure white Edward. The film also continues another Western film stereotype whereby the Indian man is rejected by the object of his affections - a white woman. After Bella gives Jacob false hope that he can win her heart, Jacob hears "the call of the wild" as he retreats into the woods in his wolf form.
Other classic movies of this era: Broken Rainbow (1985); Black Robe (1991); Thunderheart (1992); Last of the Mohicans (1992); Geronimo (1993); Pocahontas (1995); Windtalkers (2002); The New World (2005); The Only Good Indian (2009); We Shall Remain (2009)
In showing Indians as accurately as possible, movies ABOUT Indians improved - but they were and still are largely told from the white point of view. This is certainly the case with the newest Hollywood extravaganza like The Lone Ranger. When told from the white point of view, such movies were and are inaccurate as they do not incorporate the Indian point of view.
Indians as Filmmakers Era (late 1990s to the present) - Films of this era were made by Indian directors who tell stories about life in contemporary Indian Country and who often use humor to poke fun at American Indian stereotypes. For the first time in Hollywood film history, the point of view shifted from whites telling the story ABOUT Indians to Indians telling their own story. Typical of this era was Smoke Signals.
1998 Smoke Signals - the first feature film to be written, produced, directed, and acted by American Indians - tells the story of two Indians who leave the Coeur d'Alene reservation so that Victor Joseph can collect the ashes of his father who has been largely absent from Victor's life. The internal struggle of the father/son relationship is central to the story and in the end, Victor is able to make peace with his father and to release much of the anger that defines him. 
The story makes it clear that Indian people are not all alike and have great complexity of character and thought and that Indian people must be the tellers of Indian stories.
2002 Skins tells the story of two brothers living on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota - one of the poorest regions in the U.S. where joblessness and alcoholism are all-too-common facts of life. The brothers - Rudy and Mogie - represent opposite ends of the scale of fortune. Mogie, a Vietnam veteran who returned emotionally scarred by the war, has a severe drinking problem and can't relate to his teenage son, while Ruby, Mogie's younger brother, is a law enforcement officer and a respected member of the Pine Ridge community. But while Rudy is determined to do something positive for his town, he feels there's only so much he can do as a lawman, and in his off-hours he's become a vigilante, roughing up people whom he believes are helping to bring down Pine Ridge, and plotting to blow up a nearby liquor store that profits from the widespread alcoholism that has destroyed the lives of so many of his people, including his brother.
Other classic movies of this era: House Made of Dawn (1987); Powwow Highway (1989); The Business of Fancydancing (2002); Imprint (2007); Older than America (2008); Reel Injun (2009); Two Spirits (2011); Our Spirits Don't Speak English (2011)
These films which are written, directed, and acted by American Indians proved that they can be commercially successful, that negative stereotypes about Indian people can and should be examined in film and that Indians are Americans, Indians are Indian, and that Indians are people - people who must tell their own stories.
Goal #3: To discuss the way that sports mascots have stereotyped American Indians.
Indian sports mascots are among the most controversail contemporary topics in sports and in Indian Country. The video series Savage Country: American Indian Mascots in Oklahoma High School Football can help us understand the perspective of some Indian people about the damage of using the term "Redskin."
See the powerpoint presentation: American Indian Mascots: Sterotyping and Historical Trauma
Goal #4: To determine how we can avoid perpetuating harmful stereotypes about American Indians - stereotypes that continue to contribute to historical trauma in Indian Country today
Selected Bibliography
Aleiss, Angela, Making the White Man's Indian: Native Americans and Hollywood Movies. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005.
Alexie, Sherman, "I hated Tonto (Still do)" at http://articles.latimes.com/print/1998/jun/28/entertainment/ca-64216
American Psychological Association, "Resolution Recommending Retirement of American Indian Mascots" at http://www.apa.org/pi/oema/resources/indian-mascots.aspx
Baggs, Steven, "American Indian Stereotypes: 500 Years of Hate Crimes" at http://www.dickshovel.com/jank.html
Blue Corn Comics, "The Basic Indian Stereotypes" at http://www.bluecorncomics.com/stbasics.htm
Castillo, Susan, "School's Use of Native American Mascots: Report to the Board of Education". Oregon, March 8, 2012 at http://www.ode.state.or.us/superintendent/priorities/native-american-mascot-report.pdf
Deloria, Philip J., Indians in Unexpected Places. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004.
Hearne, Joanna. "'The Cross-Heart People': Race and Inheritance in the Silent Western." Journal of Popular Film and Television 30 (Winter 2003): 181–196.
Rollins, Peter C. and John E. O'Connor (eds.), Hollywood’s Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film. The University Press of Kentucky, 2003
Simmon, Scott, The Invention of the Western Film: A Cultural History of the Genre's First Half-Century. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Smith, Andrew Brodie, Shooting Cowboys and Indians: Silent Western Films, American Culture, and the Birth of Hollywood. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2003.
Standing Bear, Luther, Land of the Spotted Eagle. University of Nebraska Press reprint, 1978.
Students and Teachers Against Racism (STAR). "Understanding the American Indian Mascot Issue" at http://www.racismagainstindians.org/UnderstandingMascots.htm