Methamphetamines
Eric West
Jenna Devoid
April Nichols
Jessica Miguel
April Nichols
Chemical properties of Methamphetamines
Methamphetamine is a powerful synthetic psychostimulant and
is a Phenylethylamine derivative (5). Phenylethylamine is a
naturally occurring stimulant that is found in chocolate. The
methamphetamine molecule is composed of 80.48% carbon, 10.13%
hydrogen, and 9.39% nitrogen. Its molecular structure is C10H15N
(5.).
Methamphetamine is structurally similar to methcathinone,
amphetamine, and other stimulants and may be produced from
ephedrine or pseudophedrine by chemical reduction.
Methamphetamines can also be made from phenylacetone and
methylamine, which are currently DEA List I chemicals (5).
The conversion of these common chemicals into methamphetamine
in illegal and clandestine labs throughout the U.S. and Mexico is
highly dangerous and environmentally hazardous (5). The by-
product of production is extremely toxic and flammable and is
often dumped in unsafe areas. For example, Phosphine gas, which
is produced when the reaction is allowed to overheat, has resulted
in the injury and death of many illegal operators (5).
The most common forms of amphetamine are dextroamphetamine
(d-amphetamine sulfate), and methamphetamines (d-desoxyrephedrine
hydrochloride). Although dextroamphetamine is nearly twice as
potent as methamphetamines, methamphetamines are highly lipid
soluble allowing them to easily pass through the blood-brain
barrier (4). They also have a much longer half-life than
dextroamphetamines. Both of these properties seem to make them
preferable to dextroamphetamines for illicit amphetamine abusers
(4).
L-methamphetamine is a much less potent form of
methamphetamine and is found in many over the counter
decongestants and has been found to have little euphoric effect.
This form is not a controlled substance and has no significant
effects on alertness or performance (5).
Methamphetamine is currently a Schedule II substance.
A pharmaceutical-grade form of methamphetamines is currently
manufactured under the trade name Desoxyn and is used to treat
ADHD, exogenous obesity, and narcolepsy. Desoxyn's treatment
advantages over other related basic amphetamines are its enhanced
potency and high level of lipid solubility (5).
Use and Abuse
Methamphetamines may be swallowed, snorted, smoked, or
injected. As with other drugs such as heroin, nicotine, or
cocaine, the addiction potential increases when the drug is
delivered by methods that cause blood concentrations to rise
quickly (5). The purer forms of the chemical are known by many
street names such as "glass", "ice", or "crystal" whereas the less
pure crystalline powder is termed "crank" or "speed".
Methamphetamines are often dissolved in water and injected through
a small needle. Methamphetamine is also commonly smoked in glass
pipes or tin foil where the fumes are inhaled directly into the
lungs (5). Smoking yields effects very similar to IV injection
(4).
In medical practice, methamphetamines are most commonly
administered orally where they are readily absorbed through the
gastro-intestinal tract and buccal mucosa (9). The drug's
conversion to hydrochloride during production increases its
ability to be quickly absorbed in the stomach's acidic environment
(6).
Distribution and Metabolism
Methamphetamines are concentrated in the kidneys lungs,
cerebrospinal fluid, and the brain. They are highly lipid
soluble, readily cross the blood-brain barrier, and have a
moderate tendency to bind to proteins (6).
Ordinarily, about 30% of methamphetamines is excreted
unchanged in the urine, but that can vary considerably dependent
upon urinary ph. When urinary ph is highly acidic, approximately
60% of the dose will be excreted unchanged within 48 hours. When
urine is particularly alkaline, elimination is predominantly by
deamination and less than 7% of the dose is excreted unchanged in
the urine (6).
The biological half-life of orally administered
methamphetamines is four to five hours (6), however it can be as
long as 10-12 hours and take as many as 2 days for total
elimination (9).
Metabolism occurs primarily in the kidneys and involves
deamination (removal of an amino group) by cytochrome P450 to para-
hydroxyamphetamine and phenylacetone. Phenylacetone is
subsequently oxidized to benzoic acid and excreted as glucuronide
or glycine (hippuric acid) conjugate. Smaller amounts of the drug
are converted to norephedrine by oxidation. Hydroxylation
produces and active metabolite, O-hyroxynorephedrine, which acts
as a false neurotransmitter and accounts for much of the drug's
effect (6).
Pharmacology
Methamphetamine is a Central Nervous System stimulant that
exerts its effects by casing the release of norepinephrine and
dopamine from storage sites in the nerve terminals. It also slows
down catecholamine metabolism by inhibiting monoamine oxidase (6).
These neurotransmitters are neuroexciters causing
depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane. Chemically gated
channels open and create an excitatory postsynaptic potential.
These neuroexciters target the cell dendrite or cell body, cause
it to depolarize, and then send an impulse to the axon and synapse
(8).
Amphetamines, and methamphetamines reverse the uptake
mechanism of the monoamines (dopamine, serotonin, and
norepinephrine) so that the postsynaptic neurons remain active for
a longer period of time. The pre-synaptic neuron remains depleted
in these neurotransmitters because it cannot recover it from the
synapse (7).
It is now generally accepted that the size, shape, and
chemical structure of the methamphetamine molecule serves to
"trick" the neuron into taking it up just as if it were dopamine
(3). Dopamine is abundant in the mesolimbic region of the brain
and is often referred to as the "pleasure center" of the brain.
Once inside the neuron, methamphetamine causes the neurons to
release large amounts of dopamine accounting for the long-lasting
sense of euphoria often experienced by the user (1).
Methamphetamines also have an effect on the medulla and the
cortex resulting in increased respiration, reduced feelings of
fatigue, and increased concentration (9).
Over time, high doses of methamphetamine causes long lasting
damage to central dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons. Some
studies say that as many as 50% of dopamine D2 receptors are
destroyed and although transporter levels to seem to increase once
use of the drug is discontinued, there seems to be little or no
increase in memory or cognitive functioning (2). The damage is
specifically to the neuron cell endings and although the neurons
do not appear to actually die, they are severely cut back and re-
growth appears to be quite limited (1).
References
1. Ekleberry, S., 2000. Drug Modules: Amphetamines. Retrieved
March 21, 2005, from http://www.toad.net/~arcturus/dd/amphet.htm
2. NIDA News Release (2001, December 1). Imaging Studies Expand
Understanding of How Methamphetamine Affects the Human Brain.
Retrieved March 21, 2005, from
http://www.drugabuse.gov/MedAdv/01/NR12-1.html
3. National Institute on Drug Abuse-National Institutes of Health
(n.d.). How Does Methamphetamine Cause its Effects? Retrieved
March 21, 2005, from http://www.stopmeth.com/MOMMETH2.html
4. Chemical Viewpoint: Methamphetamine (n.d.). Retrieved March 21,
2005, from http://www.abdn.ac.uk/chemistry/ex/cm02/6/chemical.html
5. Methamphetamine (n.d.). Retrieved March 21, 2005, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methamphetamine
6. Inchem: Methamphetamines (PIM 334) (1998, June). Retrieved
March 21, 2005, from
http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim334.htm
7. Ascoli, G. (n.d.). Psyc 372-class three. Retrieved March 21,
2005, from
http://www.krasnow.gmu.edu/ascoli/Teaching/Psyc372_01/Cla3.html
8. Neurotransmitters (n.d.). Retrieved March 21, 2005, from
http://www.gpc.edu/~jaliff/ananerv.htm
9. Doweiko, H.E. (2001) Concepts of chemical dependency (5th ed.).
Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Eric West
Amphetamines: Physiological and Primary Behavior Changes
Amphetamines produce a variety of whole-body changes when taken
orally, sniffed, smoked, or injected. They affect the sympathetic
nervous system, whereby they sometimes get the label
"sympathomimetic" drugs. Among the most noticeable effects to the
more experienced observer are dilated pupils, a distinct odor on
the breath, and peculiar body odor. Not so noticeable
physiological changes include dry mouth, increased blood pressure,
with a subsequent reduction in heart rate, (which implies a danger
of CVA occurrence) perceived increase in mental alertness and
physical energy, and appetite suppression. Changes in sleeping
patterns are often noticed, with rebound effects after cessation
of use. Some of the main reasons people use amphetamines is
because of the mental alertness and physical arousal they produce.
A small dose of 5-25 mg can produce the desired effects, and those
effects last much longer than other CNS stimulants such as
cocaine. Tolerance, however, develops quickly, and the dosage must
be increased to experience the same desired effects (euphoria and
increased energy). Other purposes for using amphetamines are
losing weight (dieting), treatment for Attention-Deficit-
Hyperactivity Disorder and for narcolepsy (Palfai & Jankiewicz,
2001). According to Doweiko (2002), some have claimed that
amphetamines produce an aphrodisiac effect, but no significant
scientific evidence exists in support of this claim.
Norepenephrine and Dopamine activity in the brain are also
severely affected in chronic users, and may not return to normal
even as long as six months following cessation. Also, damage on
both cellular and regional levels in the brain have been noted,
with up to 50% of dopamine-producing cells being affected after
prolonged exposure to amphetamines. Amphetamines also appear to be
quite toxic to serotonin-producing neurons. It is thought that
this is a result of temporary or permanent changes in cerebral
blood flow patterns. Development of hypertensive episodes,
cerebral vasculitis, and vasospasm may lead to cerebral vascular
hemorrhaging (CVA, or stroke) that may kill the individual.
Symptoms of anxiety may also become present in both new and
chronic amphetamine users, and amphetamine-induced psychosis may
occur (Doweiko, 2002). Johnson, Ait-Daoud, and Wells (2000),
published a study on d-methamphetamine-induced cognitive and
physiological changes in humans. Their purpose was to ascertain
positive relationships between Isradipine and reduction of some of
the symptomatology associated with amphetamine use. Isradipine
reduced the hypertensive effects, particularly, diastolic pressure
in the heart, suggesting that Isradipine might be helpful in
reducing cardiovascular accidents associated with amphetamine
overdose. Significant cognitive differences included in this study
were not found. Johnson-Davis, Truong, Fleckenstein, and Wilkins
(2004), revealed a relationship between methamphetamine and
vesicular monoamine transpoter-2 and dopamine deficits, suggesting
a potential mechanism for the development in tolerance in abusers.
Methamphetamine abstinence syndrome was the subject of a
preliminary study by Newton, Kalechstein, Duran, Vansluis, and
Ling (2004). The most prominent findings were symptomatology that
included anhedonia, irritability, and poor concentration.
Apparently, withdrawal from even chronic use of amphetamines is
relatively mild, compared with other, more physically addictive
substances, such as heroine or alcohol. Other, more serious
problems found in research are associated with met amphetamine
use. Wijetunga, Bhan, Lindsay, and Karch (2004), found positive
relationships between crystal met amphetamine (ice) use and Acute
Coronary Syndromes in users who smoked the substance. These
findings have potentially profound socioeconomic implications,
given the extent of use among the younger population in our
society. Finally, a study by Chomchai, Na Manorom, Watanarungsan,
Yossuck, and Chomchai (2004), found numerous adverse effects of
amphetamine use during pregnancies in Thailand. These effects
included smaller head circumference and birth-weight measurements.
Also noted were symptoms of agitation, vomiting, and tachypnea.
About 96% of the cases had inadequate prenatal care, nearly half
were involved in prostitution, and many of the mothers would not
take their children home, creating increased social burden on an
already over-burdened society. In addition, met amphetamine
adversely affected somatic growth of newborns, and caused a number
of "withdrawal-like symptoms." Lastly, these children are at a
higher risk for abuse and neglect.
Amphetamine use can also lead to profound and maladaptive
behavioral changes, especially in chronic users. Major changes in
interaction between the user and his/her environment may occur, as
a result of the perceived need to procure, administer, and enjoy
the experience of using the substance. Following use of the drug
may be initiation of new projects that consume the user's time,
though these projects may never see completion. Because of dry
mouth, the user may ingest large quantities of liquids, including
water, soft drinks, etc. The user may also attempt to counter the
increased physiological arousal caused by amphetamines by using
alcoholic beverages, which may, in turn, lead to alcohol abuse
and/or dependence. Loss of time on the job may also result from
chasing, using, being high, and withdrawing from amphetamines.
However, individual production in non-mentally tasking jobs may
temporarily increase because of the energization experienced by
the user. Eventually, the user must "come down," which may result
in increased use of sick days, resulting in accumulated loss of
labor hours. As mentioned earlier, amphetamine-induced psychosis
may contribute to behavioral changes, where euphoria,
loquaciousness, and overconfidence may transit into delusions,
hallucinations, loosening of associations, and mood changing to
fearfulness, aggressiveness and suspicion, which may cause the
user to act or react antisocially toward other people in his/her
environment. Also, the need for resources to obtain the substance
may provoke acts of crime, such as burglary or robbery, in order
for the user to feed his/her addiction, though this is more often
associated with dependence than abuse (DSM-IV-TR, 225). Some
primary behavior changes that may be noticed are increased
conversational speed, furtiveness in glancing or body posture,
fidgeting, pacing, grinding of teeth, mania, and major changes in
sleeping patterns. Suicidal ideation and attempts may occur as a
result of depression associated with the discontinuance of use of
amphetamines. Yen (2004), found a positive relationship between
methamphetamine use and risky sexual behavior in Taiwanese
adolescents. Meth users were more apt to have had previous sexual
experiences at younger ages, more sexual partners, have unplanned
sex, use protection less often against STD's, and used meth more
often prior to sexual intercourse. Generally, frequency of meth
use and sexual behavior were positively correlated. Pitts and
Febbo (2004), studied the relationship between methamphetamine use
and self-control behavior in pigeons. They found a significant
reduction in sensitivity to reinforcement in four different
trials, wherein the pigeons were given meth, then were exposed to
previously conditioned reinforcers, though it seemed that the
preference for a larger, more delayed reinforcer over a smaller,
less delayed reinforcer may have been indicative of choice, rather
than indications of self-control, per se. The translation of
delayed reinforcement to humans may be significant in that choices
and preferences surrounding the use of amphetamines may mediate
behavior. Fasciano, et al, (1997), studied the potential for
treatment of neurotoxin and behavioral pharmocologic effects of
methamphetamine in rats, using the N-Methylation treatment. Their
results were positive, suggesting that N-methylation intervenes
into methamphetamine's neurotoxin and behavioral pharmacologic
effects. Further exploration into this phenomenon may have some
life-saving implications.
In conclusion, the physiological and behavioral implications
surrounding the use and abuse of amphetamines appear to be
intertwined; the physiological changes effect choices and
behaviors of the user. The more intense or chronic user will
experience more profound effects, and as a result, display more
profound changes in choice of behavior. The occasional or "light"
user may not show significant differences in behavior at all, or
may show just noticeable changes only while intoxicated by the
substance. On-going research should bring us closer to in-depth
understanding of the mechanisms behind the effects of amphetamines
on physiology, thereby increasing the potential for discovering
newer and more effective ways to treat those who suffer from
addiction/dependence on the substance, which may, in turn,
moderate social and economic costs associated with amphetamine use
and abuse.
References:
Palfai, T., and Jankiewicz, H. (2001). Drugs and Human Behavior,
2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Primis Custom Publishing.
Doweiko, H. E. (2002). Concepts of Chemical Dependency, 5th ed.
Brooks/Cole.
Johnson, B. A., Ait-Daoud, N., and Wells, L. T. (2000). Effects of
isradipine, a dihydropyridine-class calcium channel antagonist, on
d-methamphetamine-induced cognitive and physiological changes in
humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 22, 504-512.
Johnson-Davis, K. L., Truong, J. G., Fleckenstein, A. E., and
Wilkins, D. G. (2004). Alterations in vesicular dopamine uptake
contribute to tolerance to the neurotoxic effects of
methamphetmaine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental
Therapeutics, May, 309(2), 578-586.
Newton, T. F., Kalechstein, A. D., Duran, S., Vansluis, N., and
Ling, W. (2004). Methamphetamine abstinence syndrome: preliminary
findings. American Journal of Addiction, 13(3), 248-255.
Wijetunga, M., Bhan, R., Lindsay, J., and Karch, S. (2004). Acute
coronary syndrome and crystal methamphetamine use: a case series.
Hawaii Medical Journal 63(1), 8-13.
Chomchai, C., Na Manorom, N., Watanarungsan, P., Yossuck, P., and
Chomchai, S. (2004). Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy and
its health impact on neonates born at Siriraj Hosptial, Bangkok,
Thailand. Retrieved from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd, on 3-28-2005.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th
edition, Text Revision, APA, (2000).
Yen, C. F. (2004). Relationship between methamphetamine use and
risky sexual behavior in adolescents. The Kaohsiung Journal of
Medical Sciences 20(4), 160-165. Retrieved from:
http://newfirstsearch.oclc.org/WebZ/FSFETCH?, on 3-28-2005.
Pits, R. C., and Febbo, S. M. (2004). Quantitative analyses of
methamphetamine's effects on sel-control choices: implications for
ellucidating behavioral mechanisms of drug action. Behavioral
Processes, 66, 213-233.
Fasciano, J., Hatzidimitriou, G., Yuan, J., Katz, J. L., and
Ricaurte, G. A. (1997). N-Methylation dissociates
methamphetamine's neurotoxic and behavioral pharmacologic effects.
Brain Research, 771(1), 115-120.
Jenna Devoid
Methamphetamine: Side Effects & Effects
Methamphetamine has a number of behavior side effects, mostly
enacted by its interaction with the transmission of dopamine in
the brain. Dopamine is the body's natural reward system, a feel
good chemical and it is this chemical, along with serotonin, that
is effected by methamphetamine(1). The reuptake of dopamine is
blocked by the drug, resulting in the primary effects of
methamphetamine. These primary effects include euphoria,
alertness, increased sex drive and inflated sense of self. This
is naturally an appealing state of body and mind, and as one
commenter put it, "Who wouldn't want to use it? You lose weight
and you have great sex (10)." However, methamphetamine is a
highly dangerous and destructive drug. In this part of the paper
the initial effects and side effects of methamphetamine will be
discussed, specifically, brain damage, death, sex and other fun
topics.
Brain Damage:
As formerly mentioned methamphetamine acts directly upon the
dopamine nervous system of the brain, it "revs it up and burns it
out (10)." As much as 50% of dopamine producing cells in the
brain can be damaged by using somewhat low levels of
methamphetamine after a while of use, this is also true of
serotonin producing nerve cells(7). Damage to dopamine
transporters and serotonin sites (5HT) is thought to explain the
formation of delusions and psychosis in abusers (6). Both of
these chemicals are involved in the natural reward system of the
brain; by frying them out in this manner, users experience
depression immediately following the recession of the primary
effects, sometimes to a suicidal degree (13).
Abusers of methamphetamine show 24 percent fewer dopamine
transporters (DAT) in the striatum part of the brain than those
who have never used the drug (12), naturally those who have used
more methamphetamine show the most cell damage (11). Loss of DATs
is a natural part of the ageing process, people lose 6-7% of
dopamine transporters each decade. In this sense abusers have
sped up their ageing process by 40%. The striatum is involved in
control of movement, attention, motivation and rewards. All
abusers have reduced DATs; the lower the levels, the worse their
performance is on tasks measuring skills in areas controlled by
the striatum. The damage to brain cells that transport dopamine
is correlated with weakened memory and slowed motor skills. It is
unknown to what degree this is repairable. In former
methamphetamine users who used heavily over a long duration, the
damage to dopamine transporters went through noteworthy repair
after just nine months, however, the impaired motor skills and
memory remained unchanged (12). It may be that the recovery of
dopamine transporters after abstaining is a result of terminals
branching out rather than an actual increase in the number of
terminals. The loss of dopamine transporters may also put abusers
at risk for neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's
disease (12).
In users of methamphetamine NA, or the N-acetylaspartate
chemical was 5-6% lower in two parts of the brain compared to
people who have not used methamphetamine. This is indicative of a
loss of mature nerve cells in the brain. The heaviest users had
the lowest NA levels in the frontal white matter of the brain.
Lower levels of NA are also associated with Alzheimer's disease,
stroke and epilepsy (11). Indeed autopsies of methamphetamine
users have found that they've experienced thousands of "mini-
strokes" located at the ends of blood vessels in the brain. The
effects of these mini-strokes are pre-mature ageing and possibly
pre-mature senility (2).
"People used to think that the most serious methamphetamine-
induced damage was to dopamine (13).
Lethality:
Methamphetamine is the ninth death related drug (13). There
are many routes leading to methamphetamine related deaths. Its
damaging effects on dopamine nerve terminals are one route wherein
the high doses of dopamine heat the body to dangerous, sometimes
lethal levels (7). This hyperthermia can increase the body's
temperature up to 108 degrees (1). Hyperthermia can be achieved
with even one dose of methamphetamine (7).
An indirect cause of death is the production of impulsive
risk-taking in users (2). Despite increased alertness and
reaction time, driving is typically not considered a very good
idea when using or withdrawing from methamphetamine. One study
found these current driving trends in people under the influence
of methamphetamine (and not being used with any other drug):
speeding, erratic driving, accidents, nervousness, fast nonstop
talking, disorientation, awkward movements, violence and
unconsciousness. Additionally, withdrawal is associated with
hindered psychomotor skills (6). In this vein users of
methamphetamine often experience a "superman syndrome" wherein
they will try tasks that they are unable to actually perform, i.e.
jumping their cars, surfing on their cars, lifting their cars to
throw them at people, etc. In a well-rested person physical
performance could be improved with a small amount of
methamphetamine, but in users stricken with fatigue, performance
will be hindered (5).
Another indirect cause of death is hepatitis (14), HIV and
AIDS (1). Methamphetamine has a reputation as a sex drug because
of its initial effect of increasing the sex drive, in fact it has
been shown to be a potent motivation for using the drug, as will
be explored further on (10). In conjunction with increases in
impulsivity and risk-taking methamphetamine users are vulnerable
to putting themselves in danger by choice in partner and foregoing
the safety of a protective condom.
Heart attacks are also possible due to the constriction of
blood vessels. Methamphetamine can also produced irregular heart
rates, inflammation of the heart tissue, and speed up the heart
rate (14).
Another health concern is staph infections. Because of the
psychological state of the user, the sense of crawling under the
skin, or formication, often results in the user obsessively
attending to the skin, or "tweaking out (9)". The sense of
crawling is caused by the increase in body temperature caused by
methamphetamine use. The blood flow to the skin increases in
order to balance this, which causes the individual to sweat. An
enzyme in sweat causes an even greater increase in the blood flow
to the skin and when the sweat evaporates, sebaceous oil, which
protects the skin, is removed. All of this, in conjunction with
dehydration, result in an irritation to the nerve endings of the
skin creating the subjective experience of being crawled upon (9).
Users may pick, dig or scrape at their skin with their
fingers, nails or other "tools", leaving open sores, most commonly
on the face and hands. One father cites his daughter's fresh
sores as a reliable indicator of recent use, otherwise her face,
arms and torso are clear except for the heavy, permanent scars of
previous use. As fingernails are staph breeding grounds it is
very possible to infect one's sores. A staph infection causes the
sores to become enflamed and swollen and require anti-biotics and
possibly surgery if not treated with promptness (9).
Sex:
Initially methamphetamine use increases the sex drive and
performance, even moreso than other drugs. An informal survey
revealed that both male and female addicts cited sex as the number
one reason to use methamphetamine. One user describes this
phenomenon: "The effect of an IV hit of methamphetamine is the
equivalent of ten orgasms all on top of each other lasting for
thirty minutes to an hour, with a feeling of arousal that lasts
another day and a half." (To be sure, this is an addict's
perspective and while one wants to credit information from the
horse's mouth with due respect, she is an addict and prone to
exaggerate, but you get the point.) Yet, eventually the sex drive
is killed by the drug. Typically, after six months a user cannot
have sex without the drug, and soon after that, not at all. And as
one doctor put it, "Hair falls out. Teeth fall out. That's not
sexy (10)."
The increase in sexuality has its own side effects. As
aforementioned, STD's and pregnancy are made more probable since
this sexuality is coupled with inclinations for risk-taking
behaviors. But, users may also find themselves involved in
"bizarre" sexual acts outside of their own, normal boundaries
(14). Children living in the homes of users are frequently
exposed to sexual acts, pornography (which is a staple of the user
lifestyle) and are at a heightened risk of experiencing sexual
abuse in a direct way, or being "targets of the activity
themselves (14)."
Psychosis:
Psychosis as a side effect was mentioned in almost every
article retrieved for this paper as it is a common side effect.
Methamphetamine induced psychosis is exemplify by excessive
paranoia, delusions, obsessive and stereotyped behavior (called
"tweaking"), panic, stimuli sensitivity, etc. There is a great
deal of danger involved in this state (14). As formerly
mentioned, is it hypothesized that the psychosis may be explained
by the extensive damage to serotonin receptors in the brain (8).
Tweaking:
This is a part of the course of methamphetamine use worth
mentioning because of its extremity. It is considered the most
dangerous part of the course of use. The user has not slept in
three to fifteen days and is somewhat effected by this (15). It
is characterized by four to twenty-four hours of dysphoria,
scattered and disorganized thought, cravings for the drug,
paranoia, anxiety, irritability, hyper-vigilance, hallucinations,
delusions, etc. (6). The cravings are frustrated by an inability
to reach the desired high resulting in behavior that is less than
stable, including potential acting out (15). Ironically, the user
may look normal; clear eyes, precision in speech, efficient
movements. However, professionals such as officers of the law
know to look for quivering in speech, rapid eye movement and
bodily movement that is sporadic and fast (15).
Other Side Effects:
Malnutrition, skin disorders, ulcers, vitamin deficiencies, mental
illness (5), pre-natal complications, pre-mature delivery of child
(3), acne (1), dependence, addiction, mood disturbance, weight
loss (8), pre-mature ageing (12), the toxic waste of the drug
passes through the skin (9)… the list of fun and excitement to be
had with methamphetamine goes on and on.
References
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Asked Questions. Retrieved March 6, 2005 from
http://www.kci.org/meth_info/faq_meth.htm.
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is it and why is it dangerous? Retrieved March 6, 2005 from
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from http://www.methdrugtest.com/slang.html.
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2005 from http://www.kci.org/meth_info/sites/reuters.htm.
12. NIDA Notes (n.d.). Methamphetamine Abuse Linked to
Impaired Cognitive and Motor Skills Despite Recovery of
Dopamine Transporters. Retrieved March 6, 2005 from
http://www.nida.nih.gov/NIDA_Notes/NNVol17N1/Methamphetamine.
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13. Mathias, R. (n.d.). Methamphetamine Brain Damage in Mice
More Extensive Than Previously Thought. Retrieved March 6,
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14. Retrieved March 6, 2005 from http://www.nmtf.us/index.htm
15. Just Facts (n.d.) Tweaking. Retrieved March 6, 2005 from
JustFacts.org.
16. Doweiko, H.E. (2002). Concepts of Chemical Dependency. San
Francisco: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
Jessica Miguel
Methamphetamine, the methylated dl form of amphetamine, is a
powerful and highly addictive stimulant that affects the central
nervous system (Doweiko,2002; Palfai & Jankiewicz, 2001). The
first synthetic production of amphetamine was in 1887 and in 1927
the dl form amphetamine was synthesized. Original intended medical
use of amphetamines came about in 1932 with an amphetamine product
called Benezedrine for the treatment of asthma and rhinitis. Since
then, amphetamines have been used in the treatment of narcolepsy,
obesity, depression, and attention defecit disorders. Amphetamines
are no longer an acceptable treatment for depression or obesity
due to health risks and the failure to show long-term efficacy.
While amphetamines have limited, but evident, medical use
currently, the accepted medical uses for the dl methylated form
(methamphetamine) are severely restricted.
Because of its high potential for abuse and severe
psychological or physical dependence, as well as its limited
medical use, methamphetamine is listed as a Schedule II drug under
the controlled Substance Act of 1970 (Office of National Drug
Control Policy, 2005). The manufacture of methamphetamines is made
easily in clandestine laboratories using store bought materials.
The manufacture of methamphetamines exposes humans, animals, and
the environment to toxic and explosive chemicals. Because
methamphetamines are the most prevalent synthetic drug
manufactured in the United States, and making it is so potentially
toxic, the chemicals that are used to synthesize methamphetamines
are controlled under the Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control Act
of 1996 (MCA). The wide spread manufacture of methamphetamines has
led to the Methamphetamine Anti-Proliferation Act in July of 2000.
This legislation strengthens sentencing for those found guilty of
manufacturing methamphetamines and this act also provides
additional training for law enforcement on how to do proper
investigations as well as how to handle the chemicals used in
these "meth" labs.
As evident by these stringent legislations, methamphetamines
pose high risks to the user, the manufacturer, the environment,
and even the innocent bystander. What is becoming increasingly
evident is the number of caseloads in the child protection
services because of the manufacture and use of methamphetamines
that children are exposed to (U.S. Department of justice, 2003).
Upon investigation of these "meth" labs, law enforcement are
finding children in unhealthy and potentially hazardous
environments. Children with parents who abuse methamphetamines are
increasingly at risk for neglect (e.g.,lack of supervision, lack
of proper hygiene, lack of adequate or nutritious food), and
physical or sexual abuse. Methamphetamine use during pregnancy can
harm newborns by causing miscarriage, premature delivery, low
birth weight, abnormal reflexes, irritability, and learning
defecits.
Even with the existing knowledge of the dangers associated
with methamphetamine use and production, a national survey from
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services shows that over
12 million people age 12 and older have reported methamphetamine
use at least once in their lifetime (Office of National Drug
Control Policy, 2005). The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System
(YRBSS) did a nationwide study in which 7.6% of high school
students reported having used methamphetamine during their
lifetime. In 2002 there were 17,696 emergency department mentions
of methamphetamine use in the United States. A drug mention refers
to a substance recorded during a drug-related visit to the
emergency room. In 2002 there were 104,481 admissions to treatment
for methamphetamines in the U.S. Also in 2002, a total of 3,934
Federal offenders were sentenced for methamphetamine-related
charges. Over 20% of these offenders had a weapon involved in
their drug offense. This last piece of data is indicative of the
relationship of methamphetamine use to violence.
Methamphetamine production comes primarily from clandestine
laboratories in California and Mexico (office of national Drug
Control Policy, 2003). The Drug Enforcement Administration reports
that in 2001, the price of methamphetamine ranged nationally from
$3,500 to $23,000 per pound, and $20 to $300 per gram. The DEA
also reported that the average purity of methamphetamine during
2001 was 40.1%. Once in the drug trade methamphetamines are called
by many different street names, some of them including: Batu,
crank, beannies, bikers coffee, bling bling, blue meth, CR,
crystal meth, ice, meth, and poor man's coke. Some groups that may
be susceptible to methamphetamine use are truck drivers trying to
remain awake, employees who work long hours in an attempt to
reduce fatigue, athletes seeking bursts of energy and perceived
physical endurance, youth who party all night long, and students
attempting all night study sessions (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2002).
The use of methamphetamines among students may counteract the
purpose of learning, as studies are showing that brain
abnormalties may be caused by methamphetamine abuse (Swan, 2003).
The methamphetamine abusing group in this study were shown to have
slower reaction times on computerized cognitive tests requiring
working memory, the storage of information, and mental
concentration. While side-effects of methamphetamine use and
withdrawal will be covered more thoroughly in the last section of
this paper, it is important to note that even attempts at quitting
methamphetamines has its complications. A recent study shows that
after methamphetamine abusers have stopped using the drug, they
may have glucose metabolism changes in regions of the brain
associated with depressive and anxiety disorders ( National
Institute of Health, 2004).
There are no current pharmacological treatments for
methamphetamine addiction (Office of National Drug Control Policy,
2004). Currently the most effective treatments for methamphetamine
addiction are cognitive behavioral interventions. Cognitive
behavioral approaches are used to modify the person's thinking,
expectancies, and behaviors so that they can have more adequate
skills in dealing with life stressors (National Institute on Drug
Abuse, 1998). Antidepressants may also be helpful in treating the
depressive symptoms associated with methamphetamine withdrawal.
The length of the treatment is an important component to its
effectiveness (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2002). Long-term
treatment is recommended as well as strategies to prevent relapse
such as drug education, family therapy, and group therapy.
References
Doweiko, H.E., (2002). Concepts of chemical dependency. Brooks
Cole: Australia.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (1998). Methamphetamine abuse and
addiction. pages 1 to 8.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (2002). Meth: What's cooking in
your neighborhood. Myths, facts, & illicit Drugs: What you should
know. pages 1 to 20.
National Institutes of Health (2004). New study suggests
methamphetamine withdrawal is associated with brain changes
similar to those seen in depression and anxiety. pages 1 to 2.
Office of National Drug Control Policy (2003). Methamphetamine.
pages 1 to 9.
Office of National Drug Control Policy (2005). Methamphetamine.
pages 1 to 8.
Palfai, T., & Jankiewicz, H. (2001). Drugs and Human Behavior.
Mcgraw Hill Primis: New york.
Swan, N. (2003). New imaging technology confirms earlier PET scan
evidence: methamphetamine abuse linked to human brain damage. The
scinnce of drug abuse and addiction, 18, 1 to 4.
U.S. Department of Justice (2003). Children at clandestine
methamphetamine labs: Helping meth's youngest victims. OVC
Bulletin. pages 1 to 12.
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